THE BASIC DICTIONARY
By
C. K. OGDEN

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INTRODUCTION

THE OBJECT OF THE DICTIONARY

The primary object of this Dictionary is to provide Translators with Basic equivalents for all the ordinary words of Standard English. It shows how the 850 words (of which full details will be found in The Basic Words) do their work.

It will thus serve as a foundation for similar Dictionaries covering the essentials of other languages, and constitutes a practical application of the principles of Word Economy which have been set forth in previous volumes in the series.

It should, however, prove of equal value to all who are concerned with the problem of simplification or with the teaching and learning of English from other points of view. It demonstrates the possibilities of Basic as an International medium, but at the same time it indicates the true nature of the task which confronts any teacher of languages who believes in putting the first things first.

HOW MANY WORDS DO WE USE ? How many words does the average man use? The question is often asked, and the answers of experts vary by more than 4000%¹. The variation is hardly surprising when we remember that use is dependent on occasion, opportunity and temperament ; and that a word is very far from being the simple and obvious entity which statisticians so often assume.


^1. The Basic Vocabulary, 1930

As ordinarily asked and answered, the question is nonsensical. But the present volume may do something to enlighten those who are still under the illusion that their own vocabulary is in the neighborhood of 1,000 words, or that the man in the street can get along with little more than 300.

The modern mammoth Dictionary contains over 500,000 entries ; its abbreviations 100,000, 80,000, or 50,000. Let, the reader take any standard Pocket Dictionary averaging 25-30,000 words, and compare it with the selection here provided. Let him try to find 1,000 words omitted from The Basic Dictionary, which ordinary experience would not characterize as technical, pedantic, or confined to some special occasion or literary context. This, it may be confidently asserted, will prove to be the marginal thousand on which any statistical controversy would turn ; and, incidentally, any such list, small or large, will be welcome to those who are engaged in the preparation of the next edition. If 100 such words should seem to present strong claims, and if 100 words must similarly forego their claim, to inclusion in a strictly practical word-list, the following observations would not be affected by the adjustment

1. There are 7,500 "words which everyone knows" and which most people use in ordinary conversation, whose appearance, pronunciation, or derivation, necessitates a separate entry. Of these, 7,000 are main words, which cannot conveniently be grouped under others.
2. By specialization and extension these 7,500 cover more than 10,000 further meanings which in other languages are, or may be, represented by further words.
3. These 18,000, or so, common words and metaphors of current usage require for their idiomatic employment at least another 10,000 linguistic turns and twists which could not be guessed by anyone who had merely learnt the single words and their various common meanings. So that the total verbal memory-load of lowbrow conversational English is approximately four times its superficial Dictionary minimum, and would require some 30,000 entries for its adequate representation.

The task of the foreigner, who would do more than repeat the few trite phrases which hotels and trains demand, can thus to some extent be gauged ; for there are more than 10,000 further words (with corresponding antics) which will early be brought to his notice if he happens to consort with the sophisticated ; and the scientist in his turn may add another 10,000 before the level of international nomenclatures and symbols is reached.

THE BACKGROUND OF SIMPLIFICATION
How then can Basic English contrive to solve the problem of universal communication with only the 850 words entered in black capitals in the Dictionary and printed on the single sheet of business notepaper which forms its frontispiece ? When the theoretical background of simplification had been filled in some ten years ago, ¹ the answer was already clear ; but it has required the intervening period to expand it into a system.

Fortunately the fundamental principle involved can be stated in the simplest language, since it amounts only to the reduction of all language to its basic terms.

The great majority of the words which we use both in conversation and in science are what may be called shorthand for other words. That is to say, they can be translated into terms which are generally regarded as more ' matter of fact '. There is no need in this connection to go more deeply into the question of what is a 'fact', or what is 'matter', for the fact of the matter is sufficiently obvious to be allowed to pass.

The great majority of the things to which we refer are what may conveniently be called fictions, popularly known as abstractions for which again there are verbal equivalents commonly recognized as ' closer to reality '. The great majority of statements which we make about things and people are emotive : they are indeed about things and people, but the words which are used add or insinuate something more ; namely something about our emotions or the emotions we wish our hearers to adopt. The most important group of 'shorthand' words are what are known in European languages as ' verbs ' -- words like ' accelerate ' and ' ascertain '; the abstractions may be typified by words like ' blindness ' and ' breakfast '; the emotive terms, by words like ' credulous ' and ' courteous. ' Behind all these words analysis finds something simpler. To accelerate is to go more quickly ; when eating breakfast we are having our early meal ; the credulous individual is one who (in our opinion) is over-ready with belief. In all these cases the analysis could be taken further ; but the level we reach is one stage nearer the fundamental base of factual description ; and if Basic, with its 850 words, can cover the 18,000 uses of the 7,500 above mentioned, approximately at this level, the emergence of a Universal Language will reward us for our pains.

1. The Meaning of Meaning (3rd Edition, 1930), p. 262. Technologically, the method is that which Bentham first indicated in his account of Archetypation and Paraphrasis for the reduction of Fiction in general (Bentham's Theory of Fictions, 1932, Part I, Section V.).

THE METHOD OF ELIMINATION

The first step towards the simplification of the vocabulary consists therefore in the systematic elimination of Verbs proper, i.e., of all verb-forms in which in addition to the operation of one body on another, or of the human body as a whole, the direction of the action is also specified. The combination of operators and directives (prepositions) gives us, on a preliminary survey, equivalents for some 2,000 common verbs ; at the same time, a preliminary reduction of abstract and emotive terms accounts for another 1,500 lexicological items. At this stage about half the Basic necessities can readily be determined, and more than half the elementary test material of the Dictionaries has been covered.

Three major problems then present themselves:

1. To eliminate the remaining 3,000 common words.
2. To establish the remainder of the Basic vocabulary within the limits set.
3. To ensure that for all International purposes the field of reference is covered in such a way that the General Vocabulary can be expanded into a total Scientific vocabulary not exceeding 1,000 words for any particular science.
What is wanted, therefore, is a reliable method of charting the possibilities of any particular word ; and after much experimentation such a method was discovered.¹ It consists essentially in a radial diagram of the conjugates of any word, under thirty main headings, providing at a glance the data for its comparison with my rival claimant to a place in the Basic list.

At the other end of the scale some knowledge of the range of internationality of the scientific vocabularies themselves was necessary before the full requirements which Basic is designed to meet could be determined.

The results thus obtained led in 1928 to a provisional system which left less than 15% of the vocabulary in doubt. It was then possible to scrutinize a waiting list of about 250 claimants, each involving (if included) a certain number of shifts in the word-cluster to which it belonged ; and the practical task of testing by translation on an elaborate scale was undertaken it the same time. Specimens of such translations have already been published ², as well as a few samples of more idiomatic composition ³ ; and the, Dictionary itself marks the final definitive stage of the entire research.

1. The Panoptic Method, 1933.
2. Carl and Anna (in Basic English) 1930 ; The Basic Traveler, 1930 ; The Gold Insect (Poe's "Gold Bug " in Basic) 1932
3. Brighter Basic, 1930.

HOW TO USE THE DICTIONARY

Since the Dictionary is designed in the first instance for translators who already have a knowledge of the Standard English for which a Basic equivalent is sought, it must not be approached quite at the level of other Dictionaries whether designed for the inquisitive or for the learner.

The difference may be illustrated by the treatment of a word like smile. According to the Pocket Oxford Dictionary a smile is "a relaxation of the features, often with parting of the lips, expressive of affection, pleasure, amusement, contempt, etc." Whatever the philological value of such a definition it is of little use to the Basic translator. In Basic we might indeed say that a smile makes the face muscles more loose, often with parting of the lips, as a sign of pleasure or amusement, or, in agreement with Darwin, that "a smile may be said to be the first stage in the development of a laugh" ; but little or no use could be made of such information ; that "she gave a little laugh", or that "her lips were parted in amusement" may not sufficiently cover her infinite variety in all stages of incipient risibility,' but no lady could complain that a translator so armed must necessarily do her injustice ; especially when he had explored the further possibilities of recording her sense of humor, (or her low opinion of the sallies of another) or the soft look of pleasure which came over her face, to say nothing of the signs of amusement in the definition itself. And finally both would discover with relief that, in addition to all these approximations, Basic can afford the word SMILE itself as a concession to the literary and conversational exigencies of everyday life.

1. Her too obvious disposition to risibility." Scott, Guy Mannering.

In other words, the Dictionary supplies substitute phrases for translation purposes, and not definitions for identification. Some of these phrases will be memorized by the learner at an early stage, since they are liable to obtrude themselves frequently ; others are the inevitable outcome of a moment's reflection. But to -acquire the technique itself, nothing more is requisite than the same sort of practice which is a necessary condition of proficiency in any medium of communication.

In general, the equivalents given represent the same part of speech as the original word. But as it is frequently necessary to alter the form of a sentence in order to make use of a participial form instead of a verb, the participle is sometimes given as a verb-equivalent. Thus we get 'ape' = copying, 'bake' = cooking in the oven, and so on. Words or phrases which may be helpful to the translator are sometimes given in addition to the word-for-word equivalents. Examples are' administer,' government ; 'glisten' jeweled ; 'fit', taken suddenly.

Where a single word is used as two or more different parts of speech or in two or more different senses, only one of which is really I common, equivalents are occasionally given for -the less common usages as well. Hence such apparent incongruities as 'pan out', and 'express a liquid'.

With limited linguistic material at one's command it is often a far more difficult task to supply working equivalents for words than it would be to devise accurate but cumbersome definitions. The decision of the Committee only to exclude words on general grounds (i.e. because they fall into some group of words which is excluded, and not because they present individual difficulties) has given rise to some interesting problems in lexicography. The difficulties occur most frequently in the case of objects which are sufficiently familiar to make any novel mode of reference seem ludicrous to English ears.

In certain cases, suggestive phrases have seemed more profitable than the usual cut and dried substitute. Thus the appropriate term for a fan--easy enough to describe when of the electric variety--is left to be inferred from the verb-equivalent 'put the air in motion (by waving bits of paper, silk)'. 'Fountain' presents a similar difficulty, and here 'playing water' is thrown out as a suggestion. Another method is to offer substitutes which will serve on the majority of occasions, and leave the rest to the translator's ingenuity and the inspiration of the moment. 'Doll' is represented specifically as a wax-baby and generally as a plaything. Other difficulties arise among family relationships, where a bald statement of fact does not always fit very happily into a social context. Twin sisters would not relish being introduced at a party as' two at one birth' ; and a 'woman not married again' is an awkward circumlocution for a widow to use for, any but passport purposes. Special problems will also be found in dealing with 'mainland', 'canter', and 'cross'.

Idiom. It must not be inferred that whenever the translator is provided with a more idiomatic alternative than elementary knowledge would be able to attain, the foreign learner is committed to a similar turn of phrase. The expert translator, using all the possibilities at his disposal, will, of course, express himself in an idiomatic manner which no foreigner need trouble to emulate. At his discretion he may use such terms as 'so long', 'working one's way in', 'get a move on', though others less familiar with the language will keep on safer ground with 'good-day', 'get a person's good opinion', and 'be quick'. What may be claimed is that an English which happens to conform more closely to current idiom than is demanded by intelligibility puts no one at a disadvantage ; in its context it will be understood by the foreign learner. Even 'out-and-outers' and 'black sheep' imply, if they do not describe, the social outcast. And the spirit which counts minor deviations from convention as artistic or social transgressions cannot long survive.

Moreover, the foreign learner is in any case in a majority of 20:1, and therefore 95% of his effort will be directed to making himself intelligible to other foreign learners for whom Basic provides an international medium. To a certain extent it will therefore be possible for him to ignore the fact that one may be 'in fear' but not 'in hate', and to say with impunity that a man is 'off his mind', has taken 'the small ones' for a walk, or ' given angry words' to the milkman. Nor must it be forgotten that the Standard English of the text-books is confined to less than 10% even of the professedly English-speaking peoples, as is soon discovered by a migrant from Droitwich to Detroit, from Toowomba to Chattanooga or Walla Walla, Wash.¹

At the same time every effort has been made to depart as little as possible from the elementary word collocations specified in Basic English and The A.B.C. of Basic English, where all essential idiomatic usages are indicated as required. There are very few of these, however, which cannot be learnt as intelligible metaphorical uses. Two or three compound words, of which the most important are without, well-off, and away, and a few phrases like put up with and make out are the only items which need be presented as new words. All the rest are reasonable extensions : put off a meeting, have something in store for, let a prisoner off, put heart into, and so on.

The Dictionary does not take account of slang terms. Since the virtue of slang lies in a piquant quality which cannot survive translation into Basic, the foreigner need only concern himself with the more respectable idioms. Hence 'jug' is a harmless vessel and a 'bitch' is nothing more human than a female dog. Nor will Basic allow such tempting locutions as a 'frame-up' or a 'wash-out'.

   1 A sentence such as "When the elevator man had gotten where he located, so he could figure out from the editor's notation that his low-down on the jam probe was not available, he was sick at the stomach ', though readily Intelligible to 6o% of the English-speaking world, would have to be translated for a resident in the British Isles somewhat as follows : "When the lift attendant had reached his dwelling, so that be could realize from the Editor's marginal comment that his Inside information about the Inquiry Into the Causes of Traffic Congestion was not acceptable, he vomited."

International words. Words that have been accepted as international in the Basic system are used in the dictionary. In this connection we may note that even in these days of international transport it is still very difficult to find good general words to cover the different forms of traffic and equally difficult to find international terms. Automobile is perhaps the most widely understood, but many Englishmen use it sparingly. A tram may be converted into a' street-electric' ; we have trains, carriages and carts, but a lorry must be described in terms of a cart, and a bicycle is a two-wheeled machine until further international data from official sources are available.

The names of well-known characters of history and fiction and other proper names, which may often be used effectively in translation, are treated as international. A 'cigar', for example, appears as a Havana or Corona ; the 'Devil' as Satan ; 'Hell', as Inferno. So too are onomatopoeic words, which put at the disposal of the translator a symphony of buzzes, hisses, hiccups, and miaous ; though in almost all cases these sounds can be rendered less ambiguous by reference to the causal agent.

International names. In addition to the ordinary international words there are words entering into internationally understood titles, such as Dominion, Colony, Kingdom, Royal. These may be presumed to be intelligible in their context, and are therefore already halfway to being internationalized for general purposes. Meanwhile alternatives are also indicated.

Compound Words. Straightforward Basic combinations like milkman present no difficulty ; descriptive compounds like blackberry, blackbird, are allowed in the form of specializations ; bluebottle, which is analogically descriptive, is on the borderland ; while butterflies, and chestnuts must be rejected as giving no clue to their identity.

Derivation. Accepted philological conclusions are utilized for classifying separate uses of the same word as of similar or different derivation. This is purely a matter of convenience, and the rulings must seem arbitrary to a foreigner where historical data are relied on. Thus relay', s. and 'relay', v. are of separate derivation, the one being from the Fr. relaise, and the other a compound of re- and lay, while 'cross', s. and 'cross', adj. are of the same derivation. 'Mangle' and 'canvas' are equally eccentric.

Where different derivations for the same word-form are recognized, the separate entries are numbered 1, 2, 3, etc. Otherwise the uses are divided by a semi-colon only--full stops being reserved for the separation of equivalents representing different parts of speech.

Pronunciation. Words of the same form that are pronounced differently, whether of the same derivation ('conduct') or of separate derivation ('bow') are also differentiated by numbers, and an indication of the phonetic variations is given.¹

1 The pronunciation of the Basic Words themselves is no concern of the present Dictionary, but will be found in The Basic Words, (where it is given in the International Phonetic Alphabet) supplemented by four special Gramophone Records (price xo/- the set) for those who wish to approximate to the conventions of Standard English.

Word-clusters. One convenient consequence of the fact that the Dictionary is designed chiefly for those who are familiar with Standard English is the reduction made possible in the number of subsidiary entries. It has not seemed necessary to insert more than a few examples of any particular word-cluster. The commonest form is selected, and derivatives, etc., are only added where there is a special twist or some separate translation problem : e.g. 'receive', 'reception' ; 'known', 'well-known'.

Anachronisms. There are various institutions of which the names are familiar enough though they themselves have been superseded by modern developments. It has not been thought worthwhile to incorporate these where they present any particular difficulty. Thus 'castle', 'demon', 'feudal', for example, find no place in the Basic cosmos : they must be italicized on any occasion when they are specifically required.

Special equivalents. It will be found that many actions which would require very complicated description can be referred to quite simply in their context, e.g. 'rivet'--where the noise of riveting is nothing more than "the noise of hammering ", or of putting nails in. In the case of the 'eyelids', what we move can generally be the eye itself ; while for most uses of the 'eyelashes' eye-hairs are quite sufficient. An indirect substitute for such a word as 'wince' is obtained by translating the movement into terms of the emotion which it indicates ('be in fear'). Certain entries can only be given another verbal equivalent when taken as part of the sentence or phrase in which they occur, e.g., 'aback', 'sake'.

What is excluded? Certain classes of words are necessarily excluded from the present dictionary. Basic, like other international systems, is not concerned with titles as such, any more than with proper names ; nor does it at present deal with systems of calculation and measurement, where, for the purpose of written communication, international symbols are already available. Scientific terms depend for translation on the aid of special vocabularies1 and have no place in a non-technical dictionary. For this reason quite common words like 'distil', crystallize', and 'frequency' (in the electrical sense) are left for separate treatment. In order not to introduce a confusion of levels, when a word is one of a technical group from which it cannot be detached without sacrificing its practical significance, it is omitted from the dictionary even though it could be rendered Basically in the language of the layman. For example' nouns' (names) and adjectives (quality words) are dismissed with the more abstruse grammatical mysteries, while 'wickets' (the sticks) are classed with the less tractable bats and 'pitches'. By a happy chance, 'the phraseology of Bridge is comparatively well-represented since the Basic player is able to give out the cards, go two hearts, take all the tricks, and put his hand down ; nor have we omitted in the interests of popular journalism, to find a place for football and 'fighting with the gloves.'

1 See Basic English Applied (Science), where the special 50-word vocabularies of Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, and Biology are discussed and exemplified.

Specialized linguistic fields are not confined to the accepted sciences. Separate treatment is accorded in Basic to any localized or minute system of nomenclature. Such animals and foods, therefore, as are found in Zoos and Menus but have no international distribution are omitted from the present list ; the former (like all local plants) have their scientific names for purposes of international reference, and the latter can usually be described in less than 10 words, when occasion demands, but further international rulings are here awaited. The same applies to a variety of chemical and other substances (lime, soda, turpentine, etc.), and to such other objects as have only local or occasional uses. The Basic list of common objects contains the 200 words which are in most universal demand but it cannot be expected to cover the chef's array of panchons, casseroles, and colanders, or the carpenter's armory of augurs, gimlets, and chisels. In the case of most objects as specific as these, conveniently short descriptive phrases are not easy to find. Definitions similar to those provided in the ordinary dictionaries, where e.g., a 'syringe' is a "tube with nozzle and piston into which liquid is drawn by suction to be ejected in fine stream, in gardening, surgery, etc." ( = a pipe with nose-bit and push-pull apparatus into which liquid is got by using air-power, to be sent out in a thin line, for gardens, medical purposes, and so on) can readily be framed ; but the translator will probably prefer temporarily to italicize any such words as cannot be circumvented by some more general term (vessel, apparatus, etc.) with appropriate ad hoc adjectives.

The Basic Words. The 850 words of Basic English are included in the present Dictionary for convenience of reference only. It is assumed that the translator is already fully acquainted with their uses as given in The Basic Words, and with the rules for their manipulation which will be found in Basic English or in the ABC. The brief definitions or indications of their senses, specializations, and extensions have therefore a purely mnemonic value, though the technique here adopted of explaining them as far as possible in non-Basic terms frequently serves also to emphasize how essential are the words themselves.

Errors and Omissions. This Dictionary contains, as already stated, some 7,500 entries, and as a working selection for a special purpose from the immense mass of material at our disposal it is bound to seem both arbitrary and incomplete. For its gradual improvement at the present level it must rely chiefly on the co-operation of those for whom it is designed, as well as on our foreign collaborators in all countries. In due course, when funds are available, a full-scale Basic Dictionary will also see the light ; meanwhile it is encouraging to find that even with the labors of half a century I behind them the compilers of the latest edition (1930) of the Pocket Oxford Dictionary, with its 1,000 pages of masterly condensation, have still failed to include such common words as technology and mimeograph or any of their derivatives, still treat prompt as an adverb, neglect the fact that by-pass refers to a road as well as to a pipe, and assert that the United Service Club is popularly known as the' Rag'.

In conclusion, it need hardly be added that the field over which the Basic vocabulary has already been tested is a very wide one. In addition to the published items referred to on page ix, originals and translations running to many hundreds of thousands of words are virtually awaiting publication--when the necessary revision has been completed and certain difficulties of international copyright have been removed.

To one group of collaborators--whose preliminary conclusions were embodied in Basic English Applied (Science) - was entrusted the task of sifting the verbal material relative to science in its international aspects. Others have been occupied with the Radio, Commercial, Literary, Biblical, and Psychological fields. From a variety of independent translators and experimenters in the application of Basic to Education in all parts of the world we have derived invaluable assistance, and the technical advice of numerous experts in every branch of linguistic activity has been freely drawn upon.

The correlation of these various contributions has been the work of a special permanent Committee, directed by Miss L. W. Lockhart, the translator of Carl and Anna and author of Word Economy (uniform with the present volume) in which the technique of substitution is dealt with in its logical and psychological aspects. To her in particular, and to all those whose assistance has been generously given in the task of completing this, the final stage of the Basic system, my indebtedness is obvious and my gratitude profound.

C.K.O.
The Orthological Institute
10, King's Parade
Cambridge.

TYPE AND ABBREVIATIONS

Standard English words (in ordinary black type)

are translated by their Basic equivalents in ordinary type. Alternatives are indicated by brackets, or by a comma. Words which usually complete a phrase in which the word may occur are also placed in brackets. Occasionally a single Basic word is given to remind the translator of a further possibility.

Parts of speech.

s. = substantive	prep. = preposition
v. = verb	pron. = pronoun
adj. = adjective	conj. = conjunction
adv. = adverb	int = interjection

Unless otherwise indicated it is to be assumed that any entry is a substantive.

Pronunciation.

Where the same word is pronounced differently in different senses the change is shown by a stress accent or a conventional English phonetic equivalent, in brackets. Thus (Ab'strat) (Abstract'), or (Abuse) (Abuze).

Roman type

as distinct from black and italic type is used for the Basic equivalents themselves.

Italics.

All non-Basic words (other than the entries themselves) are in italics.

BASIC WORDS are printed in black capitals.

Their uses are indicated, where practicable, by non-Basic words and phrases, all essential Specializations (s) and Extensions (e) being specified, with occasional supplementary locutions or idioms for the guidance of the translator. Names of substances and other objects which cannot be translated (e.g. moon) are amplified by a Basic formula.

As in Standard English

implies exceptis excipiendis, in accordance with the rules given in Basic English.

D.   indicates that Derivatives (-er, -ing, -ed)

may be formed in accordance with the rules given in Basic English ; or that the usual derivatives and conjugates of Standard English are also included in Basic.

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